上海市嘉定区2019届高三英语二模试卷（音频暂未更新）

Eat healthier without quitting sugar

    Not long ago, fat was regarded as the evil for a healthy diet. Before that it was salt. Now the sugar-free diet  (explode) onto the health scene —and seems to have topped many people's list of New Year's resolutions.

    Sugar-free diets encourage people to avoid sweeteners such as honey, soft drinks and some fruits. Some also recommend  (restrict) dairy products. The diet's advocates note that excessive sugar consumption may increase the risk of heart disease and some cancers. So many sugar-free followers avoid milk, yoghurt and cheese  the assumption that these products contain sugars.

    It's true we are swallowing too much of the sweet stuff, with the average American consuming around 20 teaspoons of  (add) sugar a day. But you don't need  (quit) sugar for healthy eating. Quitting sugar is unlikely to improve your health any more than cutting down on over-processed foods and eating more vegetables.

    Research shows dieting is not effective over the long term and can lead to greater weight gain over time. The brain interprets dieting and restriction as hunger,   causes the storage of fat. Besides, the sugar-free diet is confusing and imposes a set of rules that  (make) up without scientific evidence. Such a restrictive diet can create food fear or an unhealthy relationship with food. People who worry about food are more likely to diet. This may be they are worried about their weight, or about the impact certain nutrients have on their health.

    Through series of experiments,  the researchers are certain about is that you can eat plenty of plants, enjoy whole grains and beans. Fruit is your friend, not your enemy. Most people could probably eat a little less sugar, a little  (often), but you don't have to quit it for good to be healthy.

    The United Nations' series of "language days" are designed to promote the use of the six official languages of the UN as well as to celebrate cultural and linguistic diversity (语言多样性). Chinese Language Day is the 20th April. It's a time chosen to fit in with the Chinese of Guyu (古语), which honours Cangjie—the four-eyed  figure who is traditionally understood to have created Chinese characters in the time of the Yellow Emperor, 5000 years ago.

    Mandarin (普通话) is the most-spoken language in the world, with over 1.5 billion speakers. When most people think of "Chinese", it is Mandarin that they are . But Mandarin Chinese is far from the only variant of the Chinese language—or the only language spoken in China. In fact, there are a great number of Chinese languages. Remember—this is a country which is both very large and very, very old. Different regions are within the  expanse of territory, that is, China can be  not only by great distances but also by broadly geographical features such as mountain ranges.

    It is hard to guess how many dialects actually exist. In general, dialects can be  classified into one of the seven large groups: Putonghua (Mandarin), Gan, Kejia (Hakka), Min, Wu, Xiang, and Yue (Cantonese). Each language group contains a large number of dialects.

    Understanding the situation is  by the fact that, while many Chinese people in different geographical areas of the country may not understand each other when they speak their regional dialect, they may share the same written language even if their pronunciation of different characters within that language may.

A  feature across all Chinese languages is tone. For instance, Mandarin has four tones and Cantonese has six tones. Tone, in terms of language, is the pitch (音高) in which syllables (音节) in words are spoken. In Chinese, different words  different keys. Some words even have pitch variations in one single syllable.

    When Elinor Ostrom won the Nobel Prize for her research on economic governance in 2009, it was the first (and so far, the only) time a woman won a Nobel for Economics. That prize has 1 for nearly 50 years. We don't do a great job of recognizing women's contributions to science and innovation. My colleagues and I wondered: Is one of the reasons why women are more likely to 2 science than men because they don't receive the same recognition?

    To understand how 3 shapes women's motivation to remain in science, we first had to get a good measure of the motivations. We sought to first study a highly visible 4, prizes, because large prizes tend to be understood and appreciated by the broader public, and they also influence those who make decisions about scientific 5 and other financial support.

    Our study focused on prizes in the biomedical sciences. If we're going to find 6 anywhere in science, it would be in this field. Women have entered biomedicine in equal numbers to men since the early 2000s. 7 this, of all Nobels awarded to women, a full two-thirds have been for biomedical research. Our 8 was simple: we documented all biomedical research prizes we could find over the past five decades. We also considered the financial awards and importance associated with the prizes, as indicators of their 9. Then we measured the percentage of prizes won by women and the association between gender and prize quality.

    Our initial results highlighted overall10 news: the proportion of biomedical prizes awarded to women has risen steadily. But when we looked at the association between gender and quality of prizes awarded, we observed a major difference: on average, women scientists win prizes associated with less money and importance than men do. Importantly, our further research suggests that there's no 11 that the quality or value of women-led research is any lower than that of men, as measured by citations (引用) per article, productivity, or width of research topics studied. 12, women are catching up in terms of number of prizes won, but still fall significantly behind in regard to the importance and monetary awards associated with the prizes.

    The bottom line: while on the surface it may appear that the gender gap has somewhat13 when it comes to science prizes, great injustice is hidden just below. The problem likely 14 beyond the borders of science. In business, for example, prizes and funding for new technology and innovation may follow a similar pattern, helping to explain the phenomenon observed for female entrepreneurs, again 15 by research. This is something worth examining in greater depth.

    "The history of the world is but the biography (传记) of great men," argued Thomas Carlyle, the advocate of what has come to be known as the "Great Man Theory of History." This theory suggests that the broader movements and outline of history all go back to the leadership of great individuals who had unique influence on their times. Whether or not Carlyle's theory proves true is debatable, but that certain individuals cast long shadows is not.

    As one who is entrusted with a leadership position, I find it profitable to read of others who have led. Wherever you find me, you'll likely find a good biography nearby. Why is this the case? First, I find good biographies fascinating. I'll occasionally read a novel, but I've never been overly drawn to fiction. I have found myself unable to sleep while in the struggle of the Battle of Britain in William Manchester's The Last Lion. For me, not to read biographies would rob me of pleasure in my life.

    Second, I find good biographies informative. A good biographer tells not only the story of a person, but also of their times. Reading a good biography is like wandering through an intellectual shopping mall. The first store is what drew you there, but you will be pleasantly surprised along the way at what other items grab your attention. You'll find no better account of the British Empire at its peak than the opening chapters of Manchester's Visions of Glory, volume one of his The Last Lion. Strictly speaking, a biography is but a slice of history.

    Third, I find good biographies relaxing. Winston Churchill once noted a man who works with his hands should have a hobby that engages his mind, and a man who works with his mind should have a hobby that engages his hands. Another way to apply Churchill's saying is to combine technical, pen-in-hand vocational reading with leisurely biographical reading. Indeed, few things are more relaxing to me than winding down the evening and entering into another world.

    This is why I love reading good biographies, and why I pity the person who neglects them. Don't be counted among their number.

    Use your domestic plan when you travel in over 100 countries for $10 a day. Add International Day Pass to your existing plan before you go, then follow these tips to help manage costs and make the most of your travels:

How it works

    While abroad, if you make or accept a call, listen to a voicemail, send a text, or use data, you will be automatically charged $10 for 24-hour access to your domestic plan. During that period you can:

●Use your domestic plan data to email, post on social media, translate languages and more.

●Make unlimited calls to countries included in International Day Pass.

●Send unlimited texts to the world.

How to help manage costs

●If you are outside of a 24-hour access period and you don't want to use your phone, turn off data roaming (漫游) to avoid being charged $10 accidentally.

●Save data by connecting Wi-Fi, especially if you download, or send and receive large files.

    Note: INTERNATIONAL DAY PASS: Coverage not available in all areas. Int'l Day Pass may be removed if international talk, text, or data use exceeds (超过) 50% of your total talk, text, or data use for two months.

    Escaping predators (食肉动物), digestion and other animal activities—including those of humans—require oxygen. But that essential ingredient is no longer so easy for marine life to obtain, several new studies reveal.

    In the past decade ocean oxygen levels have taken a dive—an alarming trend that is linked to climate change, says Andreas Oschlies, an oceanographer at the Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research in Germany, whose team tracks ocean oxygen levels worldwide. "We were surprised by the intensity of the changes we saw, how rapidly oxygen is going down in the ocean and how large the effects on marine ecosystems are," he says. It is no surprise to scientists that warming oceans are losing oxygen, but the scale of the drop calls for urgent attention. Oxygen levels in some tropical (热带的) regions have dropped by an astonishing 40 percent in the last 50 years, some recent studies reveal. Levels have dropped less significantly elsewhere, with an average loss of 2 percent globally.

    A warming ocean loses oxygen for two reasons: First, the warmer a liquid becomes, the less gas it can hold. That is why carbonated drinks go flat faster when left in the sun. Second, as polar sea ice melts, it forms a layer of water above colder, more salty sea waters. This process creates a sort of lid that can keep currents from mixing surface water down to deeper depths. And because all oxygen enters the surface, less mixing means less of it at depth.

    Ocean animals large and small, however, respond to even slight changes in oxygen by seeking refuge in higher oxygen zones or by adjusting behavior, Oschlies and others in his field have found. These adjustments can expose animals to new predators or force them into food-scarce regions. Climate change already poses serious problems for marine life, such as ocean acidification, but deoxygenation is the most pressing issue facing sea animals today, Oschlies says. After all, he says, "they all have to breathe."

    Aside from food web problems, animals face various other physiological challenges as their bodies adjust to lower oxygen levels. Chinese shrimp (虾) move their tails less vigorously to preserve energy in lower oxygen environments. Some creatures, such as jellyfishes, are more tolerant of low oxygen than others are. But all animals will feel the impact of deoxygenation because they all have evolved their oxygen capacity for a reason, says Oschlies. "Any drop in oxygen is going to damage survivability and performance," he says.

    Decades of research has demonstrated how junior employees benefit from being mentored (指导). Guidance from senior colleagues has also been shown to enhance mentees' job performance and satisfaction.

    We were especially interested in understanding how mentoring might help mentors who work in stressful occupations. Mental health is a growing concern within occupations that play important social roles, such as medical professionals, firefighters, and police officers. And because policing is one of the most stressful occupations, with high levels of mental health and well-being difficulties, we conducted a study of a formal mentoring program in an English police force.

     It was designed to support the development of junior officers by giving them a way to discuss concerns and receive guidance. Our study involved two parts. First, we conducted a field experiment: we compared the mental health of 17 mentor-mentee pairs to a control group of 18 pairs of senior and junior officers that did not participate in the program. Second, we interviewed both the mentees and their mentors separately.

    Our experiment results showed that people who served as mentors experienced lower levels of anxiety, and described their job as more meaningful, than those who did not mentor. We learned from our interviews that mentoring afforded senior officers, as well as junior officers, a chance to discuss and reflect on concerns. By acknowledging that these anxieties were common, both mentees and mentors grew more comfortable in discussing them and in sharing different coping mechanisms.

    Why does mentoring have this impact on mentors?  Despite the pressures that comes with their roles — including abuse, difficult decision making, and the risk of death — police officers tend not to seek support from other officers, including more senior colleagues. This is to avoid negative stigma, a shameful reputation, associated with mental health disorders. Mentoring thereby offered a way to build trust within a relationship that laid a foundation for open and honest communication of sensitive topics.

A. We believe it offers a way to receive support that is often lacking.

B. The mentoring program was launched in 2013 in one of the police forces in England and Wales.

C. Formal mentoring programs provide an opportunity to encourage the discussion of difficult and sensitive topics.

D. However, what we are wondering is why mentoring has such great impact on mentors as well as mentees.

E. Mentors heard their mentees' accounts of anxiety and realized these feelings — which they also shared — were common.

F. We know far less, however, about how mentoring might benefit mentors themselves.

    An international team of researchers found employees who endure what is known as "abusive supervision" are more likely to behave poorly on purpose by messing up tasks, arriving late, taking long breaks and putting in minimal effort.

    The authors of the study, published in the Journal of Management, sought to answer why horrible bosses make employees less willing to show what is known as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), or commitment to the company outside of their contractual obligations. That could include helping colleagues or volunteering for unusual work hours. They also assessed its effect on a worker's tendency to harm the organization, by displaying counterproductive (反作用的) work behavior (CWB).

    To find out more, and uncover which negative outcome bullying (欺凌) behavior is more likely to cause, researchers from Southwestern University of Finance and Economics in China, Renmin University of China and Swinburne University of Technology in Australia cooperated and analyzed 427 existing studies. They found workers acted out either because they felt they were being treated unfairly in the workplace, or felt stressed and this affected their ability to perform as expected. An employee who felt they were a victim of injustice tended more towards reluctance to show OCB. Stressed workers, meanwhile, were more associated with CWB.

    Employers who worried supervisors are affecting productivity can take steps to ease issues by regularly training managers, introducing policies which cope with workplace injustices and helping workers to deal with stress.

    This is not the first study to suggest unkind practices can affect the well-being of workers. The paper follows a study published in the European Heart Journal last year, which showed employees who suffer bullying are more likely to develop heart diseases than those who aren't. Bullying and violence are common at workplaces and those exposed to these stressors are at higher risk.

假设你是明启中学学生王华，你校学生会将组织暑期志愿者活动，有三个项目供选择:1）到历史博物馆担任讲解员；2）到科创中心担任辅导员；3）到医院担任导医。学生可根据自己的志愿和特长优势，网上申请其中一项。你有意向提出申请。你递交的申请信需说明:

1）所选择的具体工作；

2）为什么选择这项工作；

3）如何出色完成该工作。